#natureconnectedness #universitydissertation

Nature Photography and its Impact on Engagement in Pro-environmental Behaviour in Adults

⏱️ Approx Reading Time: mins

This research has not been academically reviewed and this is the only location where this work has been published.

1.0 Abstract

In the United Kingdom (UK), nature-connectedness is low when compared to other countries. Coincidentally, nature in the UK has suffered significant losses since the 1970s with many species at risk of becoming extinct. This research project aims to investigate the role nature photography could play in improving nature-connectedness, resulting in a greater propensity for engaging in pro-environmental behaviour (PEB) and therefore contributing to nature conservation. Participants in this research project completed an online structured self-report survey consisting of questions designed to gain demographic information and deep insights into their thoughts and feelings about nature photography and PEB. Each participant is placed in one of two groups (Early and Late Starters) depending on when they started their photographic journey and their current age. Thematic analysis is used to extract themes from the qualitative data to provide indicative results to inform the research questions. During analysis, a priori codes are used to facilitate a coherent and robust analysis process with additional codes added throughout the analysis process where interesting topics emerge. Analysis of the themes present in the data show that the reasons for starting photography varied between the two groups. Those who started nature photography at a young age did so through a pre-existing interest in nature, suggesting a pre-existing level of nature-connectedness. Conversely, those who started later in life tended to suggest the reasoning as being due to the need for a hobby, desire to spend more time outdoors, or for social reasons. Themes around PEB showed that those who started photography at a young age tended to have a positive outlook on PEB whereas those who started photography as adults tended to perceive PEB as problematic. This could be attributed to differing age groups having different world views, however some participants started photography at a young age and still practice it 40 years later. Both groups suggested that they feel they could engage in more PEB, however the Early Starters group shared larger and more detailed accounts of their current engagement in PEB. These indicative results suggest that there could be a link between engaging in nature photography at a young age and engaging in PEB in later life. Interestingly, this research has highlighted that there is large variation in perception of PEB between the two groups despite there being age cross over between each.

2.0 Introduction

Since the 1970s, the United Kingdom (UK) has experienced significant reduction in biodiversity (19%) with one in six species at risk of extinction from Great Britain (Burns et al., 2023). It is also reported (Richardson et al., 2022) that the UK shows low levels of nature-connectedness when compared to other countries of similar economic development. It is argued (Rosa et al., 2018) that increased nature-connectedness can increase the propensity to care for and protect nature. Several studies (Wells and Lekies, 2006 and Scopelliti et al., 2022) have noted that spending time in nature, including practising nature photography, can improve nature-connectedness.

Nature photography is a genre of photography which originated in the early 19th century (Science and Media Museum, 2017) as photographic equipment became more accessible. This genre can be broadly divided into three sub-genres: wildlife photography, landscape photography, and macro photography. Further sub-genres have developed such as wild and captive animal photography. Nature photography often relies on capturing nature in ways which invoke emotions in its viewers. For this reason, nature photography has become widely used in nature and conservation communication (Silk et al., 2021).

This research project aims to investigate the connection between nature photography and nature-connectedness with a view to gain insights into how practicing nature photography from a young age might increase propensity to engage in pro-environmental behaviours (PEB) as adults. PEB is broadly defined as behaviours which reduce or minimise one’s impact on the natural environment (Lee and Khan, 2020).

Two objectives are set for this research project; to identify if there is a relationship between individuals who engage in nature photography and their propensity to engage in PEBs as adults; and to gain an insight into whether engaging in nature photography at a young age increases the likelihood for an individual to demonstrate PEBs as adults. It is postulated that individuals who engaged in nature photography from a young age are more likely to engage in PEBs as adults because the experience of photographing nature develops nature-connectedness (Hanisch, Johnston and Longnecker, 2019). The act of engaging in PEB can reduce an individual’s impact on the environment, contributing to nature conservation efforts (van Valkengoed, Abrahamse and Steg, 2022).

Organisations with a responsibility to protect nature in the UK all operate schemes to engage young people in nature, for example the National Trust’s ’50 things to do before you’re 11¾’ (The National Trust, 2023). Studies have shown that nature-connectedness drops in teenagers and therefore interventions are needed to maintain this connection (Natural England, 2020). These schemes aim at increasing young people’s exposure to nature with the hope of increasing nature-connectedness. A meta study (Norwood et al., 2019) found that engaging children in nature this way didn’t always result in behavioural changes or long-term outcomes suggesting the need for engagement that results in long-term increases in nature-connectedness. Nature photography could be used as a long-term tool to engage young people in nature and allow for that connection with nature to be maintained and developed over time as the activity is perceived as a hobby and something that they enjoy practising. Additionally, studies have shown that spending time photographing nature can improve mental health and general happiness (NANPA, 2022), which are qualities that are suffering in young adults today (NHS, 2021).

Considering the current state of nature in the UK (Burns et al., 2023) and its low levels of nature connectedness (Richardson et al., 2022); the worsening of impacts from climate change (IPCC, 2024); and the increase in mental health disorders (NHS, 2021), it is imperative that organisations utilise all possible options to develop a strong connection with nature among young people to ensure a green generation can flourish to protect nature for years to come.

3.0 Project Evaluation and Specification

3.1 Suitability

This research project addresses and area of environmental action which forms a crucial tool in the wider context of environmental management, behaviour change. Environmental managers are tasked with ensuring that human activities are carried out in a way which minimises harm to the natural environment (Indeed Editorial Team, 2023), while aiming to improve the natural environment at the same time. Human day-to-day activates often cause harm to our nature and wildlife and therefore changing human behaviour to reduce this harm is essential.

This research project aims to gain understanding and insight into how an enjoyable hobby could be leveraged by environmental protection organisations to encourage pro-environmental behaviours. This is reflective of a phenomenon observed in society by the researcher and therefore and area of interest.

There are no formal stakeholders to this research project, however there are several informal stakeholders not directly involved in how the research is executed (See Figure 1). Environmental conservation and protection charities such as RSPB, Wildlife Trusts, Natural England, and WWF could be interested in the indicative findings of this research to inform future research, public engagement and behavioural change initiatives. Additional informal stakeholders consist of organisations working in the educational sector as this research considers development of interests in young people. Departments of local authorities also have an indirect stake in this project as they have responsibility for the development of young people and the protection of the environment.

Figure 1 – A stakeholder map illustrating the indirect stakeholders to this research project.

3.2 Feasibility

When considering how this research project would be designed and executed, it was necessary to pay attention to the how the scope of the project would be defined. The timescale for delivering this project is short, just 6 months in total, and therefore the scope had to be defined from the outset to ensure it could be completed in time whilst meeting the criteria of master’s level study. This project is completed in a part-time manner adding further to the time pressure.

Primary data was chosen for this research project as it was expected to be easy to collect with potential participants being available to the researcher through social media and hobbyist groups. The research aim was curated to capture the essence of the problem, issue, or phenomenon, while being cautious not to exceed the available time. It was decided to aim towards indicative results to gain an insight into the phenomenon as opposed to gathering statistically significant results, which would exceed the scope of the research project.

Considering the financial requirements of the project was straight forward. The design of the research should be such that no financial input should be required. Software systems that can be used free of charge are available to collect and process data.

Figure 2 - A Gantt chart created to manage the project timeline. Coloured boxes represent task completion allocations and star icons are used to indicate milestones.

3.3 Risks

This research project is subject to several risks in the form of threats and opportunities (Hillson, (2001). If not managed effectively, threats could impact the quality of the research and its outcomes or result in the failure of the research project (The Open University, 2023a). Conversely, properly managing risks to maximise opportunities arising could benefit the research project.

To enable effective risk management, a risk register (Figure 3) has been created to log and monitor any relevant threats and opportunities. Regular updates to the risk register ensure that new threats and opportunities are accounted for and managed appropriately, and existing risks can be reviewed to ensure their impact or likelihood have not changed.

Figure 3 - T803 Risk Register to enable effective management of research project risks (high resolution version in Appendix 3). It is not expected for this figure to be legible and instead illustrates the risk register created. Risks are identified in Table 1 below)

At the beginning of the project, risks were categorised into Project Level and Personal Level risks. As the project progressed, additional considerations were given to Environmental and Ethical risks.

This research project is conducted independently, therefore traditional methods of identifying risk such as brainstorming, and risk workshops are not appropriate due to the size of the project team being limited to one. To identify risks, a brainwriting exercise was carried out over several days using a white board. This allowed for risks to arise naturally throughout the early stages of the project and enabled a comprehensive Risk Register to be established (Appendix 3). This was an ongoing activity which allowed for new risks to be added, including an opportunity which became apparent once the study methodology had been worked through and decided upon.

Table 1, presented below, provides a snapshot of the threats and opportunities present in this research project along with a summary of the mitigation/stimulation measures enacted.

Table 1 - A table summarising the risks identified in this research project including the mitigation/stimulation measures enacted to manage the threats and opportunities.

3.4 Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations were made when designing this research project to ensure that best practice was followed (The Open University, 2023b) when carrying out the research. The identification of ethical impacts was carried out alongside the risk analysis, however specific consideration was given to other policies that must be adhered to (The Open University, 2021). Early feedback on this research project identified the need to ensure that only over-18s were surveyed. As a result, measures were built into the data collection and processing plan to ensure this ethical condition was met.

Other ethical considerations concerned the collection of identifiable information from participants. As part of the research project, email addresses were requested, optionally, to allow follow up emails to be sent if required. This data was extracted from the dataset in the first instance, and randomised to ensure the email addresses could not be linked back to responses. This allowed the researcher to collect this data, but not compromise privacy. All data is stored securely on the Open University SharePoint and will be deleted once the research project is complete in accordance with GDPR regulations.

4.0 Literature Review

4.1 Topic Background

Nature-connectedness has been shown to correlate with PEB. This was demonstrated by Klaniecki et al., (2018) whose findings supported the notion that nature-connectedness is a predictor of PEB. Nature-connectedness is a concept used to measure the strength of an individual’s relationship with nature. In 2009, Mayer et al., (2009) demonstrated that exposure to nature increased nature-connectedness which supports the findings of Hanisch et al., (2019). This relationship between nature-connectedness and pro-environmental behaviour highlights a potential route to delivering behaviour change.

Pro-environmental behaviour can broadly be defined as behaviours which aim to avoid harm, safeguard, or benefit the environment (Lee and Khan, 2020). Examples of these behaviours are recycling waste, purchasing local goods, choosing active travel over driving, avoiding flying abroad or becoming a member of a conservation group or donating to charity. These behaviours all contribute to minimising damage to the environment, including biodiversity and climate change. Young et al., (2018) show that increased empathy for animals (individual species and communities) can increase the likelihood of an individual engaging in pro-environmental behaviours. This is an example of nature-connectedness influencing pro-environmental behaviours.

4.2 Research Niche

Hanisch et al., (2019) found that photographing wildlife helped build a stronger emotional connection with nature. This suggests that photography could be used not just as a tool to communicate and educate but also to build connections with nature, developing an ongoing emotional investment in the natural environment. In their study, Hanisch et al., (2019) suggested that further research could investigate whether engaging in wildlife photography could increase the likelihood of a person taking action to protect the environment.

This research project aims to investigate whether introducing people to nature photography can increase their propensity to engage in pro-environmental behaviour by developing nature-connectedness. Furthermore, this research project aims to gain insight into whether introducing young people to nature photography may increase the likelihood for them to demonstrate pro-environmental behaviours as adults.

4.3 Research Justification

In 2023, the RSPB released their State of Nature Report which found that the UK has lost 19% of its biodiversity in the past 50 years (State of Nature, 2023), with one in six species being threatened with extinction. Richardson et al., (2022) have shown that people in the UK are some of the least connected with nature when considering a range of indicators, such as biodiversity and energy use (Figure 4). Although, it is worth noting that these relationships do not show causation so this should be considered when discussing this data. Notwithstanding, the relationship between the low levels of nature-connectedness and the poor state of the UK’s nature should not be ignored. Furthermore, the IPCC’s latest report (IPCC, 2024) has indicated that the Earth continues to undergo rapid climatic change because of anthropogenic activities which is a leading cause of biodiversity loss (Habibullah et al., 2022).

Figure 4 – Comparison of countries nature-connectedness. Source: Guardian (2022) adapted from Richardson et al., (2022)

In recent years, several studies have indicated that encouraging young people to spend more time in nature can increase their propensity to engage in pro-environmental behaviours in adulthood (Wells and Lekies, 2006; Rosa et al., 2018; Scopelliti et al., 2022). On the contrary, van Heezik et al,. (2021) found this not to be the case. The Office for National Statistics (2023) published a report which shows that 16-24 year olds are the least likely to make lifestyle changes to benefit the environment. This could be due to the range of variables that can affect connections with nature, including but not limited to geographic location, financial standing and other interests that may develop. This results in difficulty with statistically proving that spending time in nature results in a higher propensity to engage in pro-environmental behaviours in adults. This may explain the contradictory findings of Van Heezik et al,. (2021). Furthermore, Norwood et al., (2019) found that children that engaged in nature didn’t show behavioural change or other long-term effects. Regardless of evidence against nature exposure and behavioural changes, there remains a strong evidence base (Wells and Lekies, 2006; Rosa et al., 2018; Scopelliti et al., 2022) which suggests that overall, spending time in nature does increase nature-connectedness. The data presented by Van Heezik et al,. (2021) and Office for National Statistics (2023) could suggest that engaging in nature alone isn’t sufficient to build a strong level of nature-connectedness, something which photography could help with.

4.4 Research Context

In the context of environmental management, which can be defined as the management of human impact on the environment (Duignan, 2016), a deeper understanding of factors which can increase connectedness with nature could be leveraged to develop higher likelihoods of people engaging in pro-environmental behaviours increasing the protection of the natural environment.

In 2019, The National Trust launched a campaign titled ’50 things to do before you’re 11¾’ (The National Trust, 2023) which aims to encourage parents to provide their young children with fundamental experiences in nature. This campaign is built around a quote by Sir David Attenborough which reads, “No one will protect what they don’t care about, and no one will care about what they have never experienced.” (Williams, 2013). The campaign was created to allow children to have experiences in nature which build a connection in their minds. It is hoped that by ensuring children have these experiences, they will be given the opportunity to develop a connection with nature, and therefore want to protect it.

A similar campaign run by The Wildlife Trusts called ’30 Days Wild’ aims to achieve the same as the National Trust campaign. However, it takes a different approach by playing on the competitive edge of human nature. 30 Days Wild challenges the nation to do one ‘wild’ thing every day in June. Working with the University of Derby, a report (The Wildlife Trusts, 2024) was drafted which compiled data over five years from this campaign. The report found that participation in 30 Days Wild increased connectedness to nature, pro-environmental behaviours, and well-being for at least two months following the challenge; analysis over longer time frames was not included in the report. The report went further to show that those who described the lowest connection to nature before the challenge, reported that they gained the greatest benefit from taking part in the challenge. This report demonstrates the power of nature experiences in developing pro-environmental behaviours.

4.5 Synthesis

There is mounting evidence, presented above, that suggests spending time in nature can increase nature-connectedness and that greater levels of nature-connectedness can result in greater levels of PEB (Wells and Lekies, 2006; Rosa et al., 2018; Scopelliti et al., 2022, The Wildlife Trusts, 2024). However, as demonstrated by Norwood et al., not all nature related activities result in behaviour change and long-term impacts on young people. Furthermore, there is evidence to support that a lack of nature experiences in young people can result in the development of negative attitudes towards nature, sometimes referred “biophobia” (Soga et al., 2020).

Collectively, this suggests that schemes should be developed to ensure a long-term connection to nature can be created, built upon, and maintained. There are several campaigns currently active which aim to increase nature-connectedness, and prevent biophobia, by encouraging young people to engage with nature in a variety of ways (The National Trust, 2023 and The Wildlife Trusts, 2024). However, more research is needed to confirm the longevity of any benefits realised during and shortly after the nature experience. What is certain is that people who engage in nature photography and enjoy it, often do so as a lifelong hobby. Given it has been demonstrated that photographing nature can result in an increased emotional connection with nature, which in turn can increase nature-connectedness (Hanisch, Johnston and Longnecker, 2019), nature photography should be explored as a tool to develop nature-connectedness.

5.0 Research Design and Methodology

5.1 Research Design

This study adopts the naturalistic research paradigm. A research paradigm is a framework in which an approach to carrying out research can be developed (Rehman and Alharthi, 2016). Different research paradigms are better suited to different types of research and therefore selecting the correct approach is critical to a successful research project. Different research paradigms, such as the positivistic or naturalistic paradigms, are based on differing ontologies, epistemologies, and methodologies. These differing approaches are illustrated in the ‘Research Onion’ (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019) and form the outermost layer of the ‘Research Onion’ (see Figure 5) because they are fundamental to the research design and therefore are decided on in the early stages of the project.

Figure 5 - The ‘Research Onion’ (The Open University, 2023a), adapted from a diagram by Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2019

Ontology concerns the philosophical concept of the ‘nature of being’ which forms the foundations of the questions we ask about the universe around us (Nasution, 2018). Ontologies therefore inform how we study the universe based on how we view the world around us. Epistemology is rooted in the ontological assumptions made, for example, whether a realist or nominalist philosophy is used. The realist ontology states that there is a single reality which is independent of human experience and perception (The Open University, 2023c). This allows it to be studied objectively using the scientific method. The nominalist philosophy agrees that there may be a single reality, but that how people perceive it can be shaped by the individual (The Open University, 2023d).

Depending on the type of epistemological philosophy used by a researcher, different approaches to reaching conclusions and answers are used. Empiricist philosophies are based on the understanding that knowledge is derived from the senses (The Open University, 2023d), and knowledge is gained by observation and experience. This process of gaining knowledge is known as induction. Rationalism is based on the understanding that knowledge can be gained from rational thought alone, therefore resolving conclusions from deduction (The Open University, 2023e).

This study is based on the naturalistic research paradigm which has its foundations in nominalist philosophy. The naturalistic paradigm focuses on gaining knowledge by observation as per the empiricist approach, however, it considers that our perception of the world is influenced by our own biases and world views (The Open University, 2023f). This is well suited to this research because a wide range of worldviews produce a wide range of responses, even when measured empirically. When investigating a person’s experiences and how they might impact their behaviour, it is important to understand, and account for, individual variations in worldview and how this may influence a person’s perceptions of the world around them.

5.2 Qualitative Data

This research project requires the collection of primary qualitative data. Primary data is required because there are no existing data sets that can be used for this purpose without extensive documentary research and data collection, which would fall outside the scope of this project. Qualitative data is most appropriate to inform this study which aims to gain a deeper understanding of a specific phenomenon related to human behaviour (The Open University, 2023f). This is because qualitative data is collected in a non-numerical format such as paragraphs of text, or transcribed conversations which allows in-depth data to be collected naturally.

Qualitative data is particularly well suited to research which follows the naturalistic paradigm because it allows the study of a phenomenon in the real world outside of lab conditions (The Open University, 2023g). It also allows for a researcher to explore the phenomenon with empirical data, through analysis such as thematic analysis, which accounts for individuals’ opinions and world view. This can add depth to the collected data and allows for the researcher to gain a deep insight into their topic of study.

During the design stage of this research project, consideration was given to the kind of results that were feasible within the scope of the task set. Quantitative data was considered but decided against. To gain statistically significant results with quantitative data, a large dataset would be required with a robust data collection process spanning several months. This was out of the scope of this task and therefore more indicative results were considered. Qualitative data allows for a deep insight to be gained through a relatively small dataset.

5.3 Research Aims and Objectives

The research aims and objectives of this research project are centred around gaining indicative results which further knowledge and understanding about the phenomenon under investigation.

5.3.1 Research aim

• To gain an insight into why individuals who photograph nature tend to also engage in pro-environmental behaviours.

5.3.2 Research objectives

Two research objectives were chosen through an iterative process. These research objects follow a similar thread; however, they vary in which aspect of the phenomena they are exploring. Both objectives can be achieved through a single research question but provide a unique perspective on both the effects of the phenomenon and the use case in the real world.

1. Primary: To identify if there is a relationship between individuals who engage in nature photography and their propensity to engage in pro-environmental behaviours as adults.
2. Secondary: To gain an insight into whether engaging in nature photography at a young age increases the likelihood for an individual to demonstrate pro-environmental behaviours as adults.

5.3.3 Research question

The research question addresses the observed phenomenon to gain understanding. The question was developed over several days by iterating over each of its key parts. This took place alongside the development of the research objectives to ensure that they complimented each other.

• What is the impact of individuals engaging in nature photography on their propensity to engage in pro-environmental behaviours?

5.4 Methodology

The data collection for this research project was initially based on an interview methodology (The Open University, 2023h) which would allow insightful qualitative data to be collected from a small number of participants. This reduced the need for a large dataset and allowed for high quality data to be obtained for analysis. However, upon assessing project risks, it became apparent that attempting to conduct interviews could be too risky, such as participants not wanting to speak in person, or trying to secure availability of participants. This led to a survey method being adopted.

Other methods considered were documentary data collection which involves extracting information from existing sources of documented activity, such as newspapers, diaries, social media, and databases (The Open University, 2023i). Documentary data collection didn’t fit these aims of this research project which required an insight into people’s experience, thoughts, and opinions on a specific topic. It also requires a specific cohort of people that would be challenging to isolate through documentary research.

6.0 Data Collection

The data collection survey was created using a free of charge, online surveying software called Microsoft Forms (Microsoft, nd). While this is not the most feature rich software, it was deemed the least risky option of online software’s because it is developed and maintained by a large company, Microsoft. It is worth noting this is not without its risks as Microsoft services do occasionally go offline. However, of the several online survey tools, Microsoft Forms provides sufficient reliability.

The survey followed a structured self-report survey (The Open University, 2023j) format with questions designed to mimic a conversation, not dissimilar to an interview. However, unlike an interview, the questions did not change between responses and there were no additional follow up questions (see Appendix 1 for the survey questions). The survey was broadly split into four sections:

1. Information about the participant used to categorise them for further analysis.
2. Collecting data on participants thoughts and opinions on nature photography.
3. Collecting data on participants thoughts and opinions on pro-environmental behaviour.
4. Email address/entry into prize draw (a small prize draw was offered to thank participants). This was carried out after the research project had concluded.

Among the long response questions, two questions were included to break up the survey (reviewify.io, 2023). One question asked participants to describe how the feel about nature in five words. This was designed to prompt a deep thought about the topic ahead of the following questions. The second asked participants to rate their level of pro-environmental behaviour on a scale of 1 to 10 with 1 being low and 10 high. This was used to break up the long responses while allowing time to reflect on their own actions ahead of sharing thoughts on their feelings.

The survey was created over several days, with iterations made to adjust how it would extract the information from the participants. Measures were added to ensure the survey could safeguard against collecting data from under 18-year-olds. The first complete draft of the survey contained simple questions, however after testing the survey on a trusted friend, supplementary information was added to each question to illicit more in-depth responses. A further trial was considered however time constraints made this unfeasible. This process of external validation was helpful as it allowed a sense check of the survey and provided a demo dataset to foresee potential data issues.

6.1 Data Collection Process

To collect the data for this study, the online survey was distributed to participants through the social media channels Instagram, Facebook, and WhatsApp group chats. In addition to social media, the survey was passed to some participants via direct messaging apps. See Table 2 for the specific channels used and approximate potential reach.

Table 2 - A table showing the different social media platform and channels used to distribute the survey along with potential reach (number of people who can see it).

Although data collection was scheduled for five weeks, the data collection period ran for six weeks in order to gather additional responses while data analysis was carried out. The survey was shared through direct messages to six people that were known personally to the researcher. The survey was then shared through two social media platforms at regular intervals throughout the data collection period. Permission was sought from the administrators of the Facebook groups to share the survey to its members. Conversations with the administrators resulted in allowing the survey to be shared once per week for the duration of the data collection. Sharing the survey on personal profiles is not restricted, so this was carried out every two to three days.

The sampling method utilised was a hybrid between convenience and snowball (The Open University, 2024d) sampling with the primary method being convenience. This sampling method was chosen as the target audience was already curated through the researcher’s social media channels which primarily focused on wildlife photography. Snowball sampling was employed to bolster response rates. Analysis of analytics showed that the survey was seen by approximately 430 individuals which resulted in 48 responses giving a response rate of approx. 10%.

6.2 Strengths and Weaknesses

6.2.1 The survey

Utilising a self-report survey enables researchers to reach a large number of people with their research questions (Demetriou et al., 2015) and can complement convenience sampling as the survey can be passed to many people in a short period of time using the internet. Using online survey tools has the added benefit of collecting the data and presenting it in a pre-organised format, usually in the form of a spreadsheet. This can save time when organising the data and allows for more time to be dedicated to analysis. Another key benefit of the self-report survey is that participants can complete the survey in their own time, taking as much time as they need, which reduces pressure and can result in more genuine responses. The online nature of the survey allowed for the questions to be amended on the fly which can be helpful if needed.

In contrast, the software used to create the survey and collect responses is at risk of experiencing outages during data collection. Contrary to the benefit of being able to complete the survey in their own time, the lack of any researchers present can result in participants rushing the survey or not completing it fully.

6.2.2 Sampling method

Social media is a great medium to reach participants because it is free of charge and gives access to a large population of potential participants. Often, users of social media will share content to their social groups which can boost the reach of a post, or in this case a survey, to many more people. This can help the survey reach large numbers of people at little to no cost in a short amount of time. This was identified as an opportunity during risk analysis.

Presenting the survey to a large number of people can pose issues. The researchers cannot choose who responds, which may be desirable, however in this case was not desirable. This was combatted by sharing in groups where the demographic is well defined, photographers. Relying on a third-party method of reaching participants, such as social media opens vcfthe research project to risk by means of operational issues effecting these platforms which can hinder data collection.

6.2.3 What went well?

In the first 24 hours, the survey received 15 submissions. This level of engagement was unexpected and was welcomed as it acted as an insurance for the rest of the data collection; if things went wrong, sufficient data was already collected. Over the following weeks, responses continued to be submitted, slowing over time. By sifting through the data during the third week of the data collection period, it was clear that the curated questions and supporting information had worked to illicit long responses full of detail.

6.2.4 What didn’t go so well?

The Open University policy (The Open University, 2021) states that under 18’s cannot participate, and data should only be collected from those aged 18 or over. The survey had a screening question at the start, whereby participants were asked if they are over 18. This response was recorded for screening during data sorting. One participant indicated they were over the age of 18 however later indicated their current age as under 18. This response was removed from the data. Utilising age verification would be beneficial in this case; however, MS Forms does not support this feature.

Some participants made type errors in their responses which made it difficult to group together responses using functions in Microsoft Excel. This slowed the process greatly as the errors had to be manually corrected. Similarly, some responses such as ages were given in the wrong format, such as giving a birth date instead of age. This added administrative load to the analysis. A participant reached out to advise that the survey didn’t have an option for their education level. While this data is only supplementary for the demographics of participants, it did make a participant feel excluded. Their education level was added to the survey to enable them to complete it.

6.3 Impacts on Data

The survey data was not greatly impacted in any negative way, however there is a trade off in the quality of the responses obtained by using a self-report survey. Conducting in person interviews would have provided less data, however the data would be high quality owing to the ability to stimulate conversation on the fly which cannot be achieved with a survey. In two cases, a survey question was misinterpreted and answered out of context. It is possible to translate the response into a response that makes sense, and this was carried out during the thematic analysis. Finally, the survey did not stipulate the format required for certain responses which resulted in data which required manual intervention before analysis.

7.0 Analysis and Results

7.1 Analysis Techniques

The data collected in this study is analysed using thematic analysis techniques (The Open University, 2024c) which are common in social sciences. Microsoft Excel was used to organise and store the analysis. Thematic analysis is based on observing and extracting themes present within a qualitative dataset. This analysis allows common themes to be extracted which in turn can provide insights into the phenomenon under investigation.

Thematic analysis is typical for qualitative datasets because it enables researchers to extract high quality information from a limited sample size without the requirement for large datasets (Nowell et al., 2017). This information can then be used to understand what the data means and how it can be applied to the research questions. While thematic analysis is less exact and relies on the judgement of the researchers, it does still demonstrate a rigorous process which can be repeated by fellow researchers (Nowell et al., 2017).

On the contrary, quantitative analysis usually falls under the umbrella of statistical analyses which aim to make sense of data through a process of testing for the statistical significance of any relationships within the data. Statistical analysis requires large datasets with a high degree of accuracy to test these relationships.

Each of the main analysis techniques have strengths and weaknesses which lie in the type of data being collected. While possible, it would be less desirable to collect quantitative data for this research project as it would omit the nuances of human conversation which can contribute to the meaning of the data (The Open University, 2023k). An example of this is asking participants to suggest five words to describe how they feel about a particular topic, as employed in this research project survey. Giving the participants freedom to suggest words at their will allows for them to dig deep into their feelings. In contrast, suggesting a list of 10 words and asking a participant to choose five limits this deep insightful thought process.

7.2 Analysis Process

Analysis of this data follows three distinct pathways:

1. Early Starters: What did those who started photography before their 18^th birthday say about pro-environmental behaviour?
2. Late Starters: What did those who started photography after their 24^th birthday say about pro-environmental behaviour?
3. All Participants: What did participants in both groups say in common about pro-environmental behaviour?

Responses from each group of participants were compared against a list of a priori thematic codes. Additional codes were added during the data analysis process (see appendix 2 for a full list of codes used). These codes were then grouped into following themes (see Table 3).

Table 3 - A table showing the key themes used during data analysis.

The participants were divided into two groups for analysis. This allowed for comparisons to be made about the key themes raised by each group. The groups were:

• Early starters: Those who started nature photography before their 18^th birthday and who are currently over the age of 24.
• Late starters: Those who started nature photography after their 24^th birthday.

7.3 The Dataset

The dataset for this research project can be broadly described in terms of the demographics of participants and the number of responses. In total there were 48 responses which were completed to 100%. One of these responses was submitted by a participant who indicated they are under the age of 18. This response was removed from the dataset. One response contained responses which did not make sense and therefore was removed from the dataset. This may have been a spam contribution. This left 46 valid responses in which to analyse. The participants range in age between 19 and 80 years old with some starting photography as early as 8 years old and as late as 60 years old.

7.4 Results

7.4.1 Early Starters

Those who started nature photography at a young age (<18 years old) tended to suggest they did so because they already had an interest in nature in some form. Several participants stated the main reason being their exposure to nature and the outdoors from a young age, which had inspired an interest in nature which translated to perusing nature photography as they grew older. Two participants reported that they were inspired to take up nature photography because of family members who already practiced the hobby paired with an interest in nature. Several participants referred to their love for nature as the main reason for wanting to start photographing wildlife. See Figure 6 below for more details on these responses.

Figure 6 - A graph showing the main response themes from Early Starters and number of participants that commented each theme.

When asked about how photography might have affected how they feel about nature, 45% of participants commented on how they feel like they now have more respect for nature. Similarly, several (38%) commented on how they care more about nature now than they did before engaging in nature photography. Most participants agree that practicing photography has changed how they feel about nature, often commenting in a positive light by using words such as; better, great, harmony, fascinating, and beauty.

The participants were asked how they would feel about going to observe wildlife without a camera. All but one suggested they would do this and didn’t feel it would affect their enjoyment. One participant suggested they would feel cheated if they saw something interesting. Another commented on the need to take binoculars if they couldn’t take a camera. One participant said it would be difficult to leave their camera at home, but they would still enjoy themselves.

Participants in this group showed enthusiasm about their engagement in pro-environmental behaviours, often listing numerous actions that they engage in (see Table 4). All responders in this group confirmed that they do engage in pro-environmental behaviour with little negativity, if any. The range of PEBs noted was large covering most of the main behaviours associated with eco-friendliness. Recycling featured in most answers.

When asked about their desire to engage in more pro-environmental behaviour, responders in this group suggested that they felt there was more they could do. When asked to consider whether pro-environmental behaviour negatively impacts their lives, most suggested engaging does impact their life, commenting on the higher cost and increased difficulty of some life tasks such as buying self-care products.

Table 4 - A table listing the pro-environmental behaviours given when asked if the respondent engaged in pro-environmental behaviour.

7.4.2 Late Starters

Among the late starters (>24 years old), the reasoning was more broad and less focussed around nature itself. Three participants (14%) referred to nature as the main reasons for wanting to take up the hobby; Learning more about nature, helping to identify birds, and wanted a nature related hobby. The themes for this group were more closely related to personal development and the desire to have a hobby. Four participants stated explicitly that they started nature photography purely because they needed a hobby. A common theme did emerge from this group in which recording nature was a crucial element of photographing nature, either for later identification or to create a sightings list. See Figure 7 for more details on these responses.

Figure 7 - A graph showing the main response themes from Late Starters and number of participants that commented each theme.

Considering how photography has affected their perceptions of nature, responders in this group frequently said that they see more nature now and that they have more respect for nature. Four responders (18%) suggested that photography has helped them spend more time in nature and that it has allowed them to enjoy wildlife watching more than they did before.

When asked about how they feel about going to observe nature without a camera, participants in this group shared polarising opinions. Three participants responded with a simple ‘yes’, while five simply said ‘no’. One participant commented on how not taking photos takes away the enjoyment of being in nature. Conversely, the majority (68%) suggested that they enjoy nature just as much without a camera as they do with a camera.

The participants in the Late Starter group tended to have a negative response when asked about the PEB they engage in. Many responders commented on the fact that they are a ‘small cog in a big wheel’ and that they only sometimes engage in PEB. Most did mention recycling in response to this question. Interestingly, three participants (14%) commented on how they feel resentment towards humanity.

Many responders (18%) in this group admitted to not doing enough to engage in PEB and most feel like they can do more. All responders commented on how PEB makes their life harder and effects their life negatively. Generally, participants in this group reported fewer PEBs and with less enthusiasm (see Table 4). It should be noted that several key PEBs were mentioned by this group such as avoiding fast fashion, saving energy, and choosing active travel over driving. There was less use of descriptive words in the responses and recycling featured heavily in the responses for this group.

7.4.3 All Participants

One key theme emerged that was consistent across the groups. The was the interest in recording nature or taking reference images, which was interpreted as taking photographs not for aesthetic purposes but for data collection purposes.

The most common PEB engaged in is Recycling Waste with participants across both groups adding this to their response (see Figure 8 and 9). Both groups reported that the increased cost of engaging in PEB was a factor in their approach, however the Early Starters group tended to accept the higher costs. This could be because of feeling more passionate about their actions, or due to participants in this group being of working age. In contrast, the Later Starters tended to be older and potentially living on pension funds although it is accepted this isn’t the case for all participants.

Figure 8 - A graph showing the main PEBs engaged in and the frequency they appeared in the responses.

Figure 9 - A graph showing the main PEBs engaged in and the frequency they appeared in the responses.

Each participant was asked to describe how they feel about nature using just five words. The results of this provide insight into how each group feels about nature and acts to stimulate deep consideration of the topic. The word clouds below (Figure 10 and 11) illustrate that all participants share similar feelings about nature with the words; worry, important, and exciting being the top three shared terms. However, participants in the Late Starters group provided more words linked to a personal relationship with nature such as; relaxing, amazing, happy, exciting, enjoyable and fun. Those in the Early Starters group provided more words relating to how they perceive nature, for example, unpredictable, important, fragile, sacred, and sad.

Figure 10 - A word cloud generated from responses given by participants (Early Starters) when asked to describe nature in five words.

Figure 11 - A word cloud generated from responses given by participants (Later Starters) when asked to describe nature in five words.

When asked to rate their level of PEB, those in the Early Starters group gave an average rating of 6.5/10 with the lowest given being 4 and the highest 8. The Late Starters group gave lower scores overall with an average of 5.9/10 and a range of 4-8. The collective average across all participants was 6.25/10. See Figure 12 for rating comparison.

Figure 12 - A bar chart illustrating the average ratings given by participants when asked to rate their level of engagement in PEB. Ratings average by group and across all participants.

8.0 Conclusions

8.1 Addressing the research question

This research project aimed to gain an insight into an observed phenomenon regarding the tendency for nature photographers to engage in pro-environmental behaviours. Two objectives were set for the research; firstly, to identify if there is a relationship between nature photography and PEB; and secondly to understand if engaging in nature photography at a young age increases propensity to engage in PEB.

Thematic analysis of qualitative data collected with a structured self-report survey provided insight into the relationship nature photographers have with PEB. Across all participants, those who engaged in nature photography reported also engaging in PEB. Furthermore, the results found that there were no participants who engage in nature photography who do not engage in PEB, suggesting there could be relationship between the two. This supports the findings of Wells et al., (2006), Rosa et al., (2018), and Scopelliti et al., (2022) who found that spending time in nature can increase propensity to engage in PEB. This adds to their findings that engaging in nature photography can be another nature activity which results in higher propensity to engage in PEB. However, without the presence of a control group it is not possible to confirm whether these findings of propensity to engage in PEB are solely due to engaging in nature photography.

Analysis of the responses per group, Early and Late Starters, provides insight into how the age at which you engage in nature photography alters propensity to engage in PEB. The Office for National Statistics (2023) (ONS) found that 16-24 year olds were the least likely to make any lifestyle changes to benefit the environment (77.2%). Whereas this research project highlights that all participants who engaged in nature photography during this age also engaged in PEB as adults. This suggests that the act of engaging in nature photography at a young age could increase propensity to engage in PEB. In the same study, the ONS also found that of those between the age 50-64, (90.7%) made lifestyle changes. In this research project, all participants in this age range engaged in PEB. Furthermore, the levels of engagement were high with most participants in this age range suggesting at least four PEBs when asked. This analysis demonstrates that engaging in nature photography could increase propensity to engage in PEB.

Considering how participants rated their engagement in PEB, the average score given was 6.25/10. Reviewing the PEBs and commentary provided, it could be argued that this average score is low and possibly due to participants feeling under pressure to do more, something reported in nearly 50% of the responses. Combining the comments from participants with their ratings, this research project reveals that participants could under value their engagement in PEB, something which could be unique to those who engage in nature photography. This finding was not initially predicted and provides an interesting insight into how participants who are engaged in nature photography perceive their contribution. This is relevant to the results presented here because it highlights that those who engage in nature photography may engage in more PEB than they realise, potentially amplifying the relationships observed in the data. Further research into this is required to understand if this is common across a wider cohort or unique to those who engage in nature photography.

8.2 Limitations of research design

8.2.1 Scope

This research project is limited by the time and resources available resulting in a research project which can only provide indicative results and insights into the phenomenon under study. Given more time and access to a larger pool of participants, with support from additional researchers, this project could have been designed to gather more statistical data that could be used to test a hypothesis.

8.2.2 Confounding Variables

Due to the nature of this research project, there are several confounding variables which harm the significance of the research. The confounding variables identified are:

4. The age of the participant may alter their perception of environmental topics due to the era in which they were born and/or grew up.
5. Political differences across generations could alter the perceptions of environmental topics.
6. Individuals who have a strong passion for nature outside of photography may already exhibit high levels of pro-environmental behaviour.
7. Not all nature photographers have a strong emotional connection with nature which could impact how they perceive the questions asked in this research project.

Each of these confounding variables reduce how reliable the results of the research project are and impact the conclusions that can be drawn from said results. Approaching the data analysis with these variables in mind helps to look for connections and themes that may indicate where these variables are having an input and therefore allow for the weight of certain arguments to be adjusted.

8.2.3 The Human Factor

This research project asks people to give insights into how well, or how poorly, they engage with pro-environmental behaviours. Given the prevalence of climate and environmental stories in the media, it is expected that some individuals may feel like they are failing to do their part. This may result in some responses not being entirely truthful. The survey aimed to combat this by asking participants if they have been truthful throughout, however this only goes so far to tackle the issue and is easily evaded. Additional resource (research assistant) could combat this by allowing more information to be extracted by conducting interviews and reading body-language.

8.2.4 Sample Population

The sample population for this research project was limited to a small geographic region, the UK. The dataset is only representative of this relatively small geographic area when considering cultural and demographic contributions.

8.3 Future research

The greatest weakness of this study is the robustness and quality of the insights that can be extracted from the qualitative data due to the small sample size and the use of a structured self-report survey. Future research should aim to eliminate this weakness by collecting quantitative data from a large sample size. A future study should consider the use of statistical analysis to highlight statistically significant relationships between starting nature photography at a young age and propensity to engage in pro-environmental behaviours as an adult. Given sufficient resources and time, a long-term study could be conducted to follow participants who are engaged with nature photography to better understand how their attitudes towards nature change as they move into adulthood.

Furthermore, collecting qualitative data and analysing concurrently with statistical analysis will allow future studies to build on existing knowledge while providing deeper insights into the phenomenon under study. Finally, future studies should consider using control groups and international sample populations to eliminate additional confounding variables.

8.4 Recommendations

While the results of this research project are only indicative and do not provide any data about the statistical significance of any relationships, there is evidence to suggest that nature photography can be used as a tool to help young people develop their level of nature-connectedness, supporting the findings of Hanisch et al., (2019). If nature photography is adopted as a long-term hobby, the insights gained from this research project suggest that there is a high likelihood that they will have a higher propensity to engage in pro-environmental behaviours.

It is recommended that environmental organisations (e.g., RSPB, Wildlife Trusts, Natural England, WWF), along with educational institutions and local authorities, should invest in additional research into this topic. This should be carried out with a view of introducing trial programmes and schemes to enable young people to engage in nature photography.

9.0 References

Burns, F., Mordue, S., al Fulaij, N., Boersch-Supan, PH., Boswell, J., Boyd, RJ., Bradfer-Lawrence, T., de Ornellas, P., de Palma, A., de Zylva, P., Dennis, EB., Foster, S., Gilbert, G., Halliwell, L., Hawkins, K., Haysom, KA., Holland, MM., Hughes, J., Jackson, AC., Mancini, F., Mathews, F., McQuatters-Gollop, A., Noble, DG., O’Brien, D., Pescott, OL., Purvis, A., Simkin, J., Smith, A., Stanbury, AJ., Villemot, J., Walker, KJ., Walton, P., Webb, TJ., Williams, J., Wilson, R., Gregory, RD. (2023). State of Nature 2023. The State of Nature partnership, Available at: www.stateofnature.org.uk (Accessed: 02 April 2024)

Demetriou, C., Ozer, B. U. and Essau, C. A. (2015) ‘Self-Report Questionnaires’. The Encyclopaedia of Clinical Psychology, pp. 1–6. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118625392.wbecp507 (Accessed: 10^th Mach 2024)

The Gaurdian (2022) ‘Britain ranks bottom in Europe for nature connectedness’, The Gaurdian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/23/britain-ranks-bottom-in-europe-for-nature-connectiveness (Accessed: 10^th April 2024)

Hanisch, E., Johnston, R. and Longnecker, N. (2019) ‘Cameras for conservation: wildlife photography and emotional engagement with biodiversity and nature’, Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 24(3), pp. 267–284. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/10871209.2019.1600206.

Hillson, D. (2001) ‘Effective strategies for exploiting opportunities’. Paper presented at Project Management Institute Annual Seminars & Symposium, Nashville, TN. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute. Available at: https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/effective-strategies-exploiting-opportunities-7947 (Accessed: 6^th April 2024)

Indeed Editorial Team (2023) Indeed.com - What does an environmental manager do? (With FAQs). Available at: https://uk.indeed.com/career-advice/finding-a-job/what-does-environmental-manager-do (Accessed: 9^th March 2024)

Klaniecki, K., Leventon, J. & Abson, D.J. (2018) ‘Human–nature connectedness as a ‘treatment’ for pro-environmental behavior: making the case for spatial consideration

ns’. Sustain Sci 13, 1375–1388. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-018-0578-x

Microsoft (nd) Microsoft Forms [Computer Program]. Available at: https://forms.office.com/ (Accessed: 12^th February 2024)

NANPA (2022) ‘Experiencing and Photographing Nature: Good for Mind and Body’, North American Nature Photography Association. Available at: https://nanpa.org/2022/01/21/experiencing-and-photographing-nature-good-for-mind-and-body/ (Accessed: 3^rd April 2024)

National Trust (2023) ’50 things to do before you’re 11 3/4’ National Trust. Available at: https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/visit/50-things (Accessed: 10^th March 2024)

Natural England (2020) ‘A summary report on nature connectedness among adults and children in England’, Monitor of Engagement with the Natural Environment. Available at: https://publications.naturalengland.org.uk/publication/6005041314136064 (Accessed: 3^rd April 2024)

NHS (2021) ‘Mental Health of Children and Young People in England 2021 - wave 2 follow up to the 2017 survey’, Mental Health of Children and Young People Surveys. Available at: https://digital.nhs.uk/data-and-information/publications/statistical/mental-health-of-children-and-young-people-in-england/2021-follow-up-to-the-2017-survey (Accessed: 3^rd April 2024)

Norwood, M.F., Lakhani, A., Fullagar, S., Maujean, A., Downes, M., Byrne, J., Stewart, A., Barber, B., Kendall, E., (2019). ‘A narrative and systematic review of the behavioural, cognitive and emotional effects of passive nature exposure on young people: Evidence for prescribing change’. Landscape and Urban Planning, 189, pp.71-79. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.04.007 (Accessed: 29 March 2024)

Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). ‘Thematic Analysis: Striving to Meet the Trustworthiness Criteria’. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1). Available at: https://doi-org.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/10.1177/1609406917733847 (Accessed: 9^th April 2024)

Reviewify.io (2023) ’10 Survey Retention Questions to Keep Your Audience Engaged’. Available at: https://reviewfy.io/10-survey-retention-questions-to-keep-your-audience-engaged/ (Accessed: 9^th April 2024)

Rosa, C.D., Profice, C.C. and Collado, S. (2018) ‘Nature Experiences and Adults’ Self-Reported Pro-environmental Behaviors: The Role of Connectedness to Nature and Childhood Nature Experiences’, Frontiers in Psychology, 9. Available at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01055 (Accessed: 24 January 2024)

Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2019) Research methods for business students. 8th edn. London: Pearson

Science and Media Museum (2017) History of Photography in Pictures. Available at: https://www.scienceandmediamuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/history-photography (Accessed: 3^rd April 2024)

Scopelliti, M., Barni, D. and Rinallo, E. (2022) ‘My Parents Taught…Green Was My Growth! The Role of Intergenerational Transmission of Ecological Values in Young Adults’ Pro-Environmental Behaviors and Their Psychosocial Mechanisms’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(3), p. 1670. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031670.

Silk, M. et al. (2021) ‘The implications of digital visual media for human–nature relationships’, People and Nature, 3(6), pp. 1130–1137. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/pan3.10284.

Soga, M., Evans, M.J., Yamanoi, T., Fukano, Y., Tsuchiya, K., Koyanagi, T.F., Kanai, T., (2020) ‘How can we mitigate against increasing biophobia among children during the extinction of experience?’. Biological Conservation. Available at: https://research.childrenandnature.org/research/the-loss-of-direct-interactions-between-humans-and-nature-could-result-in-more-negative-attitudes-towards-the-natural-world-yet-there-may-be-ways-to-counteract-this-outcome/ (Accessed: 3^rd April 2024).

The Office for National Statistics (2023) ‘Most adults report making some changes to their lifestyle for environmental reasons’, Census 2021. Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/wellbeing/articles/mostadultsreportmakingsomechangestotheirlifestyleforenvironmentalreasons/2023-07-05 (Accessed: 10^th March 2024).

The Open University (2021) ‘Research Code of Practice’. Available at: https://research.open.ac.uk/sites/research.open.ac.uk/files/files/Documents/research-code-of-practice.pdf (Accessed: 2^nd March 2024)

The Open University (2023a) ‘T803 Research in Context - Risk Assessment and Impact Analysis’. Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2196834&section=1.10.1.10.4.4 (Accessed: 20^th March 2024)

The Open University (2023b) ‘Ethics Principles for Research with Human Participants’. The Open University. Available at: https://research.open.ac.uk/sites/research.open.ac.uk/files/files/Documents/ethics-principles-for-research-with-human-participants-2023-03.pdf (Accessed: 15^th March 2024)

The Open University (2023c) ‘T803 Research in Context – 1.2 Become a researcher’. Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2196834&section=1.2 (Accessed: 15^th March 2024)

The Open University (2023d) ‘T803 Research in Context.- 1.4.1 Empiricism’. Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2196834&section=1.4.1 (Accessed: 15^th March 2024)

The Open University (2023e), ‘T803 Research in Context: 1.2.1 Pause to reflect on the T803 journey’. Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2196834&section=1.2.1 (Accessed: 19 March 2024)

The Open University (2023f) ‘T803 Research in Context – 1.5.1 Reflect in naturalism’. Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2196834&section=1.5.1 (Accessed: 15^th March 2024)

The Open University (2023g) ‘T803 Research in Context – 1.5 The naturalistic paradigm’. Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2196834&section=1.5 (Accessed: 15^th March 2024)

The Open University (2023h) ‘T803 Research in Context – Survey Method’. Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2196834&section=1.9.1.9.3.1 (Accessed: 15^th March 2024)

The Open University (2023i) ‘T803 Research in Context – Documentary Methods’. Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2196834&section=1.9.1 (Accessed: 14^th March 2024)

The Open University (2023j) ‘T803 Research in Context – Survey Methods’. Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2204208&section=2.5 (Accessed: 15^th March 2024)

The Open University (2023k) ‘T803 Research in Context – Interviews’. Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2205131&section=3.4.2 (Accessed: 15^th April 2024)

van Valkengoed, A.M., Abrahamse, W. and Steg, L. (2022) ‘To select effective interventions for pro-environmental behaviour change, we need to consider determinants of behaviour’, Nature Human Behaviour, 6(11), pp. 1482–1492. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01473-w.

Wells, N.M. and Lekies, K.S. (2006) ‘Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from Childhood Nature Experiences to Adult Environmentalism’, Children, Youth and Environments, 16(1), pp. 1–24.

The Wildlife Trusts (2024) ’30 Days Wild’, The Wildlife Trusts. Available at: https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/30dayswild (Accessed: 10^th March 2024)

Created by Niall Bell (niall@niallbell.com)